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Sep. 06, 2023
Industrial washers are among the most widely used components in mechanical fastening systems, yet their engineering importance is frequently underestimated.
A washer is not simply a metal ring placed beneath a bolt head or nut.
Depending on its geometry, material and intended function, a washer can influence bearing pressure,
joint preload, surface protection, friction, spring behavior, mechanical locking, sealing and assembly consistency.
The correct washer selection can improve the performance of a fastening system.
An unsuitable washer can contribute to local deformation, preload variation, surface damage, corrosion, assembly interference or failure of a locking or sealing arrangement.
For OEM design engineers, washer selection begins with the mechanical requirements of the joint.
For manufacturing engineers and production managers, washer geometry and packaging can affect feeding, handling, tightening consistency, inspection and assembly cost.
For procurement and supplier-development teams, a complete washer specification supports accurate quotation, controlled substitutions, supplier qualification and reliable repeat purchasing.
JUXIN FASTENERS supplies industrial fastening components for applications involving machinery, automotive equipment, EV systems, electrical enclosures, HVAC equipment and other OEM assemblies.
This engineering guide explains the major industrial washer types, their functions, selection principles, manufacturing considerations and the information required for professional OEM sourcing.
An industrial washer is a component installed at a fastening interface or incorporated into a specialized mechanical, locking, spring or sealing arrangement.
Depending on its design, it may provide one or more of the following functions:
Distribute bearing load
Provide a controlled contact surface
Protect the connected material
Support thin or relatively soft materials
Maintain a specified spacing condition
Provide elastic deflection
Contribute to mechanical locking
Form part of a sealing interface
Accommodate angular misalignment
Support an application-specific assembly requirement
The term washer therefore describes a family of components rather than one universal product.
A flat washer, wave washer, tab washer and bonded sealing washer may have similar external appearances but fundamentally different engineering functions.
The correct selection starts with the problem the washer must solve.
| Washer type | Principal function | Main selection consideration |
|---|---|---|
| Standard flat washer | Bearing-area control and load distribution | Dimensions, material and contact pressure |
| Large-OD washer | Increased bearing coverage | Sheet thickness, hole size and local deformation |
| Hardened washer | Resistance to demanding bearing loads | Material, hardness and joint requirements |
| Split spring washer | Elastic behavior in a formed washer | Actual joint conditions and limitations |
| Wave washer | Axial spring action | Load-deflection characteristics |
| Conical spring washer | Defined spring behavior | Working deflection and available space |
| Serrated washer | Mechanical surface interaction | Contact geometry, hardness and coatings |
| Internal-tooth lock washer | Tooth engagement near the fastener opening | Head geometry and mating surfaces |
| External-tooth lock washer | Tooth engagement at the outer perimeter | Contact area and installation clearance |
| Tab or stop washer | Positive mechanical restraint | Tab engagement and assembly geometry |
| Bonded sealing washer | Elastomeric sealing interface | Compression, fluid and temperature compatibility |
| Metal sealing washer | Metallic sealing interface | Surface finish, pressure and material |
| Spherical washer | Angular accommodation | Alignment and bearing geometry |
| Custom washer | Application-specific function | Drawing, material, tolerances and production process |
These categories are not interchangeable.
A washer should be selected according to its intended mechanical function and the actual operating conditions.
Flat washers, also called plain washers, are widely used in bolted assemblies.
Their main purpose is to provide a defined bearing interface between a fastener and the connected component.
Potential functions include:
Increasing bearing coverage
Reducing localized indentation
Protecting selected mating surfaces
Supporting clearance holes
Establishing a more controlled contact interface
Standard flat washers are commonly used in:
Industrial machinery
Equipment frames
Mounting brackets
Electrical cabinets
Automotive assemblies
Sheet-metal equipment
General OEM products
Their suitability depends on the complete joint.
A standard washer should not be selected solely because its nominal size matches the bolt.
Relevant metric standards include:
ISO 7089 — Plain washers, normal series, product grade A.
ISO 7090 — Plain washers, chamfered, normal series, product grade A.
ISO 7091 — Plain washers, normal series, product grade C.
Other standards address different washer series, dimensions and product requirements.
For inch-series applications, ASME B18.21.1 covers specified washer configurations within its scope.
The applicable standard should be identified on the drawing or purchasing specification.
Large outside-diameter washers provide increased bearing coverage compared with standard washer configurations.
They may be useful when the connected material is relatively thin or soft, or when a larger clearance hole requires additional support.
Typical applications include:
Thin steel panels
Aluminum brackets
Sheet-metal enclosures
Automotive body components
Equipment covers
Lightweight structures
Electrical cabinets
A simplified relationship is:
Average bearing pressure = Applied bearing force / Effective contact area
Increasing effective contact area may reduce average bearing pressure.
However, actual pressure distribution is not necessarily uniform.
Washer stiffness, surface flatness, hole geometry and material deformation can influence local contact stresses.
A larger washer can introduce new problems if it:
Contacts a formed edge
Overlaps a weld
Interferes with an adjacent component
Sits on a curved or uneven surface
Reduces available assembly clearance
Creates an unsuitable load path
The washer outside diameter must therefore be evaluated against the complete joint geometry.
Three basic dimensions strongly influence washer suitability.
The washer inside diameter must accommodate the fastener and intended assembly clearance.
An excessively large opening may reduce bearing support near the hole.
An undersized opening may interfere with installation.
The outside diameter determines the available bearing footprint.
It should be evaluated against the connected material, hole size, edge distance and surrounding geometry.
Thickness influences washer stiffness, deformation resistance and assembly stack height.
An unsuitable thickness can affect:
Bearing behavior
Washer deformation
Fastener engagement
Installation clearance
Overall assembly height
A thicker washer is not automatically a better washer.
The correct geometry depends on the functional requirement.
Industrial washers may be specified in carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, spring steel, aluminum or other application-specific materials.
Material selection should account for:
Mechanical loading
Bearing pressure
Washer deformation
Corrosion exposure
Temperature
Mating materials
Electrical requirements
Surface treatment
Assembly friction
Carbon steel washers are widely used in general industrial fastening.
Their suitability depends on the specified material, mechanical requirements and protective finish.
Hardened washers may be considered where demanding bearing loads require greater resistance to indentation or deformation.
The appropriate hardness and material requirements must be matched to the complete joint.
Stainless steel washers are frequently considered for corrosion-sensitive applications.
Potential applications include:
Outdoor machinery
Electrical equipment
HVAC systems
Food-processing equipment
Automotive assemblies
Industrial enclosures
The specific stainless steel grade should be identified where corrosion behavior or mechanical performance is important.
Spring steel may be appropriate for certain formed washer configurations requiring elastic behavior.
The spring function depends on both material and geometry.
Nonferrous materials may be used for specific mechanical, sealing or compatibility requirements.
Their suitability should be established for the actual application.
High-strength bolts can create substantial bearing loads.
Common metric bolt property classes include 8.8, 10.9 and 12.9.
ISO 898-1 addresses mechanical and physical properties of applicable carbon and alloy steel bolts, screws and studs.
However, bolt property class alone does not determine the required washer.
A washer with insufficient bearing resistance may experience:
Local indentation
Plastic deformation
Embedding
Changes in contact conditions
Joint relaxation
Preload loss
The washer must be compatible with the bolt and connected material.
The engineering objective is to maintain an appropriate bearing interface under the intended load.
The joint may instead be limited by:
Parent-material deformation
Hole elongation
Washer deformation
Thread stripping
Insufficient edge distance
Joint separation
Fatigue
Inadequate preload
The complete fastening system must be evaluated.
Spring washers use formed geometry to provide an elastic response.
However, spring action and resistance to loosening are not identical functions.
Split spring washers are common in general fastening applications.
They should not automatically be assumed to prevent loosening under severe vibration.
Their performance depends on the joint, installation conditions and loading.
Wave washers provide axial spring characteristics through wave-shaped geometry.
They may be considered for:
Axial compensation
Limited movement accommodation
Defined spring loading
Specialized equipment assemblies
Their suitability depends on the required load-deflection behavior.
Conical spring washers provide elastic behavior through a conical profile.
Depending on the design, they may be used where a defined spring characteristic is required within limited space.
The working deflection and load range must be appropriate for the application.
A spring washer should be specified by its required mechanical behavior, not merely by its appearance or general product name.
Serrated washers and tooth lock washers use formed teeth or serrations to interact with the mating surface.
They may be considered for applications requiring mechanical surface engagement.
Internal-tooth washers have teeth around the inner circumference.
Selection depends on:
Fastener head or nut geometry
Contact surface
Coating
Available clearance
Assembly conditions
External-tooth washers have teeth around the outer perimeter.
Their suitability depends on the intended contact interface and available bearing area.
Some washer designs incorporate multiple serrations or specialized contact features.
These should be evaluated according to their actual locking mechanism and the joint requirements.
A serrated washer does not guarantee that a joint will remain secure under every vibration condition.
Where loosening resistance is critical, the complete joint should be validated.
Tab washers and stop washers provide mechanical restraint through formed features.
These may include:
Tabs
Ears
Bent sections
Slots
Engagement with housing features
Their function differs from friction-based locking.
A properly designed tab washer may physically restrict rotational movement.
However, the assembly must provide suitable geometry for the tab to engage.
Potential applications include:
Industrial machinery
Mechanical equipment
Retaining arrangements
Specialized rotating assemblies
Maintenance-intensive equipment
Engineers should evaluate:
Tab geometry
Material
Installation sequence
Bending requirements
Access for assembly
Inspection
Reuse limitations
A tab washer should not be replaced with a conventional plain washer without reviewing the locking function.
Sealing washers are designed to contribute to a controlled sealing interface.
They may be used in:
Hydraulic equipment
HVAC systems
Fluid connections
Electrical enclosures
Automotive equipment
Industrial machinery
A bonded sealing washer typically combines a metal washer with an elastomeric sealing element.
The metal component provides structural support, while the elastomer contributes to sealing under suitable compression.
Potential elastomer materials may include NBR, EPDM or other specified compounds.
Selection depends on:
Fluid compatibility
Operating temperature
Chemical exposure
Compression
Surface condition
Aging
Assembly geometry
A sealing washer does not independently establish an IP67 or IP68 enclosure rating.
Where an ingress-protection classification is required, the complete enclosure must be evaluated against the applicable requirements.
Metal sealing washers may be used in applications requiring a metallic sealing interface.
Potential materials include copper and aluminum.
Their suitability depends on surface condition, pressure, temperature, fluid compatibility and assembly loading.
Spherical washer systems are designed to accommodate specified angular conditions between the fastener axis and bearing surface.
They may be considered in:
Machinery
Equipment frames
Structural assemblies
Heavy equipment
Specialized mounting systems
A spherical washer arrangement can help establish a more appropriate bearing interface where alignment variation is present.
Angular offset
Washer geometry
Fastener diameter
Bearing surface
Joint stiffness
Available clearance
Spherical washers should not be treated as substitutes for conventional flat washers without evaluating the intended function.
Thin sheet metal and aluminum assemblies can be sensitive to localized bearing loads.
A standard washer may not always provide sufficient bearing support.
Potential applications include:
Equipment cabinets
Control panels
Automotive panels
HVAC housings
Telecommunications enclosures
Lightweight brackets
Large-OD washers may be considered to increase bearing coverage.
However, sheet thickness, hole size, edge distance and local stiffness remain important.
Aluminum components can have different bearing and deformation characteristics from steel.
Washer selection should consider the actual aluminum alloy, thickness and applied load.
Washer geometry, edge condition and tightening process can influence coating damage.
A washer should not automatically be assumed to protect every finished surface.
A washer can influence the friction conditions at the fastener bearing interface.
This matters because tightening torque does not directly equal bolt preload.
A simplified relationship is:
T ≈ K × F × d
Where:
T = tightening torque
K = empirical nut factor representing assembly friction effects
F = bolt preload
d = nominal bolt diameter
The relationship is illustrative rather than a universal tightening specification.
Changing the washer may alter:
Surface friction
Bearing geometry
Coating interaction
Stack height
Local deformation
Preload consistency
Therefore, a washer change may require engineering review even when the nominal bolt diameter remains unchanged.
In torque-controlled production, a validated assembly should maintain controlled fastener and surface conditions.
An unapproved washer substitution may introduce additional preload variation.
Industrial washers may be exposed to moisture, condensation, salt, chemicals and outdoor environments.
Material and coating selection should reflect the actual service conditions.
Zinc-based finishes are used in many industrial steel fastening applications.
The coating system must be defined by the relevant specification.
Stainless steel washers may require a specified surface condition or treatment depending on the application.
Spring steel washers may require protective finishes compatible with their material and functional requirements.
When dissimilar metals are combined in a conductive environment, galvanic corrosion may become a concern.
Examples include:
Stainless steel and aluminum
Carbon steel and aluminum
Coated steel and aluminum
The complete material combination should be evaluated.
Two washers with similar appearance may have different coating systems and corrosion characteristics.
Procurement specifications should identify the required finish rather than relying on color or visual similarity.
Automotive fastening systems use different washer configurations according to the mechanical function.
Applications may include:
Body brackets
Interior assemblies
Exterior components
Equipment mounts
Chassis-related assemblies
Electrical systems
Battery enclosures
Selection may involve bearing area, bolt strength, vibration, corrosion and installation requirements.
Surface protection, assembly repeatability and service access may be important.
EV battery systems may combine aluminum structures, coated steel, sheet-metal components and sealing interfaces.
Washer selection should account for:
Material compatibility
Bearing pressure
Thermal cycling
Vibration
Corrosion
Electrical requirements
Sealing interfaces
A washer selected for mechanical load distribution should not automatically be treated as an electrical isolation or sealing component.
Where threaded fastening is required without rear-side access, a blind rivet nut or another suitable fastening architecture may be more appropriate.
Industrial machinery may use washers in:
Machine frames
Motor mounts
Gearbox assemblies
Guards
Pumps
Covers
Equipment housings
Structural brackets
The required washer function depends on the load and operating conditions.
Standard bearing-area control may be sufficient for some joints.
Vibration, cyclic loading and relative movement may require a defined locking strategy.
Repeated assembly and disassembly can affect washer condition and suitability for reuse.
The maintenance procedure should define replacement requirements where necessary.
Electrical equipment may require washers for mechanical fastening, surface interaction or specialized electrical functions.
Applications include:
Electrical cabinets
Control panels
Power distribution equipment
Telecommunications enclosures
Equipment racks
Industrial electronics housings
Plain or large-OD washers may help distribute bearing load.
Tooth washers may form part of an engineered electrical bonding arrangement.
However, electrical continuity must be evaluated at the system level.
Where electrical isolation is required, suitable insulating components and assembly-level verification may be necessary.
Coatings can affect mechanical contact and electrical behavior.
The electrical and mechanical requirements should be defined separately.
HVAC equipment may experience:
Condensation
Temperature variation
Vibration
Outdoor exposure
Chemical environments
Transportation equipment may experience repeated loading, vibration and maintenance cycles.
Washer selection should therefore consider the complete environment and the intended joint function.
| Observed problem | Possible contributing factor | Engineering review |
|---|---|---|
| Local indentation | Insufficient bearing area | Washer geometry and parent material |
| Washer deformation | Unsuitable material or thickness | Material, hardness and load |
| Preload loss | Embedding or relaxation | Joint stiffness and bearing interface |
| Fastener loosening | Relative movement or unsuitable locking | Complete locking strategy |
| Surface damage | Burrs, edges or contact conditions | Edge quality and surface finish |
| Corrosion | Material or coating incompatibility | Material combination and environment |
| Leakage | Unsuitable sealing compression | Complete sealing interface |
| Uneven seating | Washer flatness or surface geometry | Flatness and mating surfaces |
| Assembly interference | Incorrect dimensions | Clearance and stack height |
| Electrical bonding failure | Inadequate conductive contact | Assembly-level electrical verification |
The corrective action should be based on the actual failure mechanism.
A larger, thicker or harder washer is not automatically the correct solution.
| Application | Washer type to evaluate | Primary technical question |
|---|---|---|
| General machinery | Standard flat washer | Is the bearing interface suitable? |
| Thin sheet metal | Large-OD washer | Is local deformation controlled? |
| High-strength bolted joint | Appropriate hardened washer | Can the interface sustain the intended load? |
| Corrosion-sensitive equipment | Specified stainless or coated washer | Is the material system compatible? |
| Axial spring requirement | Wave or conical spring washer | Is the load-deflection behavior suitable? |
| Positive rotational restraint | Tab or stop washer | Is mechanical engagement reliable? |
| Fluid sealing | Bonded or metal sealing washer | Is the interface validated for sealing? |
| Angular misalignment | Spherical washer system | Is the angular condition within design limits? |
| Electrical bonding | Engineered contact washer arrangement | Is continuity verified? |
| Custom equipment | Drawing-based washer | Does standard hardware meet the requirement? |
The applicable standard depends on washer geometry, dimensional series and intended function.
Relevant standards include:
ISO 7089
ISO 7090
ISO 7091
ISO 7093 series
ISO 7094
Each standard applies to its defined washer configuration and product scope.
ASME B18.21.1 addresses specified plain and locking washer categories within its scope.
DIN washer designations remain present in international engineering drawings.
The exact DIN standard should be retained and checked against the specified dimensions and product requirements.
Applicable ASTM or other material specifications may be relevant depending on the washer material.
A material specification should not automatically be treated as a complete finished-washer dimensional specification.
Washers are generally clearance components rather than threaded components.
Nevertheless, washer selection must match the intended fastener dimensions and assembly.
ISO metric threads, Unified UNC/UNF threads and British BSW/BSF threads are distinct systems and must not be treated as directly interchangeable.
Standard washers are often suitable for general fastening requirements.
Custom washers may be required when the assembly has special geometry or functional needs.
Potential custom features include:
Special inside diameter
Special outside diameter
Nonstandard thickness
Rectangular or irregular profile
Special bearing surface
Formed features
Special material
Specified hardness
Application-specific surface treatment
The appropriate manufacturing method depends on:
Material
Thickness
Geometry
Tolerance
Production volume
Edge requirements
Surface treatment
Functional requirements
Potential manufacturing routes for washer-type components include stamping, machining or other suitable processes.
The route must be confirmed against the drawing and production requirements.
A custom washer project may require sample evaluation before production sourcing.
The necessary approval process should be defined by the customer.
Quality requirements should be based on the approved drawing and application.
Potential inspection characteristics include:
Inside diameter
Outside diameter
Thickness
Flatness
Burrs
Edge condition
Material
Hardness where specified
Coating condition
Visual appearance
Special functional characteristics
Poor flatness may contribute to uneven seating or localized contact.
Burrs may affect assembly, damage coatings or create handling concerns.
Surface treatment and roughness may influence corrosion performance and tightening friction.
For OEM purchasing, lot identification and traceability requirements should be agreed according to the customer specification.
Washer selection also affects production efficiency.
For high-volume assembly, manufacturers may need to consider:
Automatic feeding
Washer orientation
Part separation
Assembly sequence
Tool access
Bolt-and-washer presentation
Tightening consistency
Inspection
Packaging
Rework
Washers with special geometry may require controlled orientation.
Feeding compatibility should be reviewed during production planning.
Packaging may need to support:
Defined quantities
Part-number identification
Lot identification
Surface protection
Production-line handling
The total cost of a washer is not limited to its purchase price.
A more complete evaluation considers:
Component cost + handling + assembly time + inspection + scrap + rework + logistics
For production managers, this can be more meaningful than comparing washer unit prices alone.
Two washers may fit the same bolt but perform differently.
Differences may include:
Outside diameter
Thickness
Material
Hardness
Coating
Flatness
Locking geometry
Sealing material
Spring characteristics
A supplier substitution should therefore be evaluated against the approved specification.
A washer change can affect:
Bearing pressure
Joint stack height
Friction
Preload
Corrosion
Locking behavior
Sealing
Where these characteristics are relevant, the change should follow the customer's engineering approval process.
One controlled part number should correspond to a clearly defined technical configuration.
Washers with different functional specifications should not be treated as interchangeable inventory merely because they share a nominal size.
Supplier-development teams should establish a common technical baseline before comparing quotations.
The baseline should identify:
Drawing revision
Washer type
Applicable standard
Dimensions
Material
Hardness where applicable
Surface treatment
Functional requirements
Inspection requirements
The purchasing requirements should identify:
Prototype quantity
Initial production quantity
Estimated annual demand
Packaging
Delivery destination
Required schedule
Documentation requirements
Change-control expectations
Relevant considerations include:
Technical conformity
Material control
Dimensional capability
Inspection arrangements
Documentation
Packaging
Communication
Delivery planning
Long-term specification control
Supplier capability should be verified against the actual project rather than assumed from a general product description.
A practical selection process is:
Define the joint requirement
→ Identify the connected materials and operating conditions.
Define the washer function
→ Determine whether the washer is required for bearing, spring action, locking, sealing or alignment.
Select the geometry
→ Review inside diameter, outside diameter, thickness and special features.
Select the material
→ Evaluate mechanical and environmental requirements.
Define the surface treatment
→ Review corrosion, friction and contact conditions.
Validate the assembly
→ Confirm installation, performance and production requirements.
Control the specification
→ Establish drawings, revisions, part numbers and inspection criteria.
Release for sourcing
→ Compare technically equivalent supplier quotations.
This approach helps prevent a washer from being selected solely on the basis of nominal bolt diameter.
Some fastening problems require a different fastening architecture rather than another washer.
Potential alternatives include:
Self-clinching nuts
Self-clinching studs
Self-clinching standoffs
Blind rivet nuts
Sealing blind rivet nuts
Weld nuts
Weld studs
Threaded inserts
Custom machined fastening components
Where rear-side access is unavailable, a blind rivet nut may provide a more practical threaded connection.
Self-clinching fasteners may be suitable where the sheet material, thickness and installation conditions meet the product requirements.
Weld nuts or weld studs may be considered where welding is compatible with the parent material and production process.
The objective is to choose the correct fastening system rather than force every application into a washer-and-bolt arrangement.
For a technically meaningful quotation, provide the following information.
Washer type
Applicable standard
Part number
Drawing revision
Inside diameter
Outside diameter
Thickness
Tolerances
Material
Hardness where required
Surface treatment
Special functional requirements
Bolt or screw specification
Connected material
Joint thickness
Required washer function
Loading conditions
Temperature
Corrosion environment
Vibration
Sealing requirements
Electrical requirements where applicable
Prototype quantity
Initial order quantity
Estimated annual usage
Packaging requirements
Delivery destination
Required schedule
Inspection documentation
Material or compliance documentation
Provide photographs, dimensions, the mating bolt size, connected material and intended function.
These details can support an initial technical discussion, although a controlled drawing may still be required before production approval.
Common categories include flat washers, large-OD washers, hardened washers, spring washers, wave washers, conical washers, serrated washers,
tooth lock washers, tab washers, sealing washers, spherical washers and custom washers.
A flat washer primarily provides a bearing interface.
A locking washer uses a particular mechanical feature intended to address movement or loosening.
Their functions are different.
Their effectiveness depends on the specific design and joint conditions.
A conventional split spring washer should not automatically be considered sufficient for severe vibration.
A large-OD washer may increase bearing coverage and reduce local contact pressure in suitable applications.
It is often considered for thin or relatively soft connected materials.
Some high-strength joints require washers with defined mechanical properties.
The appropriate washer must be selected according to the joint and applicable specification.
They may be used in some assemblies, but galvanic compatibility, corrosion exposure and mechanical requirements must be evaluated.
A sealing washer may contribute to the sealing system, but the complete enclosure must be tested or otherwise evaluated against the applicable requirements.
Yes. Washer material, surface condition and coating can influence bearing friction and therefore the relationship between tightening torque and preload.
A custom washer may improve assembly or solve a design problem, but the economic benefit depends on the complete production process and sourcing requirements.
Provide the drawing, washer type, dimensions, material, surface treatment, application, quantity, packaging and required documentation.
JUXIN FASTENERS supports industrial customers sourcing specified fastening components for OEM and production applications.
Relevant product categories include:
Industrial washers
Flat washers
Specialized washer configurations
Bolts and screws
Nuts
High-strength fasteners
Stainless steel fasteners
Self-clinching fasteners
Blind rivet nuts
Sealing blind rivet nuts
Weld fasteners
CNC-machined fastening components
Plastic fastening components
Product availability, customization feasibility and commercial terms must be confirmed for the specific requirement.
Whether you require a standard industrial washer, a specialized locking or sealing configuration, or a custom drawing-based component,
provide your technical specification and purchasing requirements.
For an efficient review, include:
2D drawing + material + dimensions + surface treatment + intended function + quantity + application
Where appropriate, also provide a 3D model, bolt specification, connected-material details and required quality documentation.
Company: JUXIN FASTENERS
Website: https://www.juxinfasteners.com/
Email: info@juxinfasteners.com
Contact JUXIN FASTENERS to discuss industrial washer selection, drawing evaluation, custom washer requirements and OEM bulk purchasing.
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